Environmental (E) Resources

Resources organized by the Planetary Boundaries Framework (Rockström et al., Stockholm Resilience Centre).

The planetary boundaries framework defines a safe operating space for humanity based on nine critical Earth system processes. Six of nine boundaries have been transgressed, indicating that Earth is now well outside the safe operating space for humanity.

Framework Origin: Rockström, J., et al. (2009). “A safe operating space for humanity.” Nature, 461, 472-475.
Updated: Steffen, W., et al. (2015). “Planetary boundaries: Guiding human development on a changing planet.” Science, 347(6223), 1259855.

Framework Overview

Boundary Status Control Variable Current Value Boundary Value
🌡️ Climate Change 🔴 Transgressed Atmospheric CO₂ concentration 417 ppm 350 ppm
🦋 Biodiversity Loss 🔴 Transgressed Extinction rate >100 E/MSY <10 E/MSY
🌳 Land-System Change 🔴 Transgressed Cropland as % of ice-free land 12% <15%
💧 Freshwater Use 🟡 Regional Global freshwater consumption 2,600 km³/yr <4,000 km³/yr
🔬 Biogeochemical Flows 🔴 Transgressed N & P flows to oceans N: 150 Tg/yr N: 62 Tg/yr
🌊 Ocean Acidification 🟢 Safe Aragonite saturation state Ωarag = 2.9 Ωarag ≥ 2.75
☁️ Aerosol Loading ⚪ Uncertain Aerosol optical depth (AOD) Regional Not quantified
🛡️ Ozone Depletion 🟢 Safe Stratospheric O₃ concentration 283 DU >275 DU
⚗️ Novel Entities 🔴 Transgressed Chemical pollution High Not quantified
Legend: 🔴 Transgressed 🟡 Regional/Uncertain 🟢 Within safe limits ⚪ Not yet quantified

🌡️ 1. Climate Change (Transgressed)

Status: HIGH RISK - Boundary transgressed
Control Variables: Atmospheric CO₂ concentration, radiative forcing
Current State: 417 ppm CO₂ (vs. 350 ppm boundary)

Scientific Definition

Climate change refers to long-term shifts in global temperatures and weather patterns driven by increased greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere.

Key Topics

  • Greenhouse gas emissions (CO₂, CH₄, N₂O, F-gases)
  • Global temperature rise and warming scenarios
  • Carbon budgets and net-zero pathways
  • Climate tipping points
  • Mitigation and adaptation strategies
  • IFRS S2: Climate-related Disclosures
  • TCFD: Task Force on Climate-related Financial Disclosures
  • SASB: Climate risk metrics by industry
  • GRI 305: Emissions

Resources

Simon Mak’s Books

  • Carbon Accounting in Practice: Technical guide to GHG measurement
  • Climate Risk Quantification in Practice: Financial impact of climate change
  • Carbon Credits Made Simple: Voluntary carbon markets

Explore Climate Change Resources →

🦋 2. Biodiversity Loss (Transgressed)

Status: HIGH RISK - Boundary transgressed
Control Variable: Extinction rate (extinctions per million species-years, E/MSY)
Current State: >100 E/MSY (vs. <10 E/MSY boundary)

Scientific Definition

Biodiversity loss refers to the decline in the variety and variability of life on Earth, measured by species extinction rates, population declines, and genetic diversity loss.

Key Topics

  • Species extinction and endangerment
  • Habitat loss and fragmentation
  • Ecosystem degradation
  • Invasive species
  • Conservation strategies
  • Biodiversity metrics and monitoring
  • TNFD: Taskforce on Nature-related Financial Disclosures
  • GRI 304: Biodiversity
  • SASB: Biodiversity impacts (sector-specific)
  • SBTN: Science Based Targets for Nature

Resources

Simon Mak’s Books

  • TNFD Made Simple: Practical guide to nature-related disclosures
  • Biodiversity and Ecology Service Accounting: Quantifying biodiversity impacts

Explore Biodiversity Resources →

🌳 3. Land-System Change (Transgressed)

Status: HIGH RISK - Boundary transgressed
Control Variable: Cropland as percentage of ice-free land
Current State: 12% (approaching 15% boundary)

Scientific Definition

Land-system change refers to the conversion of natural ecosystems (forests, wetlands, grasslands) to human-dominated land uses (agriculture, urban areas).

Key Topics

  • Deforestation and forest degradation
  • Agricultural expansion
  • Urbanization
  • Land degradation and desertification
  • Sustainable land management
  • Reforestation and restoration
  • TNFD: Land-use dependencies and impacts
  • GRI 304: Biodiversity (includes land use)
  • SASB: Land use and ecological impacts
  • REDD+: Reducing emissions from deforestation

Resources

Simon Mak’s Books

  • TNFD Made Simple: Land-use assessment
  • Biodiversity and Ecology Service Accounting: Land-use impacts on ecosystems

Explore Land-System Change Resources →

💧 4. Freshwater Use (Regionally Transgressed)

Status: MODERATE RISK - Regional boundaries transgressed
Control Variable: Global freshwater consumption
Current State: 2,600 km³/yr (vs. <4,000 km³/yr global boundary)

Scientific Definition

Freshwater use refers to human consumption of renewable freshwater resources from rivers, lakes, and aquifers. While the global boundary is not transgressed, many regions face severe water stress.

Key Topics

  • Water scarcity and stress
  • Water footprint and virtual water
  • Water quality and pollution
  • Water-energy-food nexus
  • Water governance and allocation
  • Sustainable water management
  • CDP Water: Water security disclosure
  • GRI 303: Water and Effluents
  • SASB: Water management (sector-specific)
  • Alliance for Water Stewardship: AWS Standard

Resources

Simon Mak’s Books

  • Water Accounting in Practice: Comprehensive water footprint methodology

Explore Freshwater Use Resources →

🔬 5. Biogeochemical Flows (Transgressed)

Status: HIGH RISK - Boundary transgressed
Control Variables: Nitrogen (N) and Phosphorus (P) flows to oceans
Current State: N: 150 Tg/yr (vs. 62 Tg/yr boundary), P: 14 Tg/yr (vs. 11 Tg/yr boundary)

Scientific Definition

Biogeochemical flows refer to the cycling of nitrogen and phosphorus through Earth systems. Excessive flows from fertilizer use cause eutrophication, dead zones, and ecosystem collapse.

Key Topics

  • Nitrogen and phosphorus pollution
  • Eutrophication and algal blooms
  • Agricultural runoff
  • Fertilizer efficiency
  • Nutrient recovery and recycling
  • Circular nutrient management
  • GRI 306: Effluents and Waste
  • SASB: Water quality (agriculture, food sectors)
  • TNFD: Nutrient pollution impacts

Resources

Simon Mak’s Books

  • Water Accounting in Practice: Nutrient pollution accounting
  • Biodiversity and Ecology Service Accounting: Ecosystem impacts of nutrient pollution

Explore Biogeochemical Flows Resources →

🌊 6. Ocean Acidification (Within Safe Limits)

Status: LOW RISK - Within safe operating space
Control Variable: Aragonite saturation state (Ωarag)
Current State: Ωarag = 2.9 (vs. ≥2.75 boundary)

Scientific Definition

Ocean acidification refers to the decrease in ocean pH caused by absorption of atmospheric CO₂. While still within the boundary, continued CO₂ emissions threaten marine ecosystems.

Key Topics

  • Ocean pH and carbonate chemistry
  • Coral reef bleaching
  • Marine ecosystem impacts
  • Shellfish and calcifying organisms
  • Ocean carbon sink capacity
  • Marine conservation
  • TNFD: Marine ecosystem dependencies
  • GRI 304: Biodiversity (marine)
  • SASB: Marine resources (fisheries, aquaculture)

Resources

Simon Mak’s Books

  • TNFD Made Simple: Marine ecosystem assessment
  • Climate Risk Quantification in Practice: Ocean-related climate risks

Explore Ocean Acidification Resources →

☁️ 7. Atmospheric Aerosol Loading (Not Yet Quantified)

Status: UNCERTAIN - Boundary not yet quantified globally
Control Variable: Aerosol optical depth (AOD)
Current State: Regional variations, no global boundary established

Scientific Definition

Atmospheric aerosol loading refers to the concentration of fine particles (PM2.5, PM10) in the atmosphere from natural and anthropogenic sources. Aerosols affect climate, air quality, and human health.

Key Topics

  • Air pollution and particulate matter
  • Aerosol-climate interactions
  • Health impacts of air pollution
  • Emission sources (industry, transport, agriculture)
  • Air quality monitoring
  • Pollution control technologies
  • GRI 305: Emissions (includes air pollutants)
  • SASB: Air quality (sector-specific)
  • WHO: Air quality guidelines

Resources

Simon Mak’s Books

  • Carbon Accounting in Practice: Air pollutant emissions

Explore Atmospheric Aerosol Resources →

🛡️ 8. Stratospheric Ozone Depletion (Within Safe Limits)

Status: LOW RISK - Within safe operating space (recovering)
Control Variable: Stratospheric O₃ concentration
Current State: 283 DU (vs. >275 DU boundary)

Scientific Definition

Stratospheric ozone depletion refers to the thinning of the ozone layer caused by ozone-depleting substances (ODS). The Montreal Protocol has successfully phased out most ODS, and the ozone layer is recovering.

Key Topics

  • Ozone-depleting substances (CFCs, HCFCs, halons)
  • Montreal Protocol success story
  • Ozone layer recovery
  • UV radiation and health impacts
  • Kigali Amendment (HFCs)
  • GRI 305: Emissions (ODS)
  • Montreal Protocol: International treaty

Resources

Simon Mak’s Books

  • ESG Reporting Made Simple: Ozone-depleting substance reporting

Explore Ozone Depletion Resources →

⚗️ 9. Novel Entities (Transgressed)

Status: HIGH RISK - Boundary transgressed
Control Variable: Chemical pollution, plastics, microplastics, novel organisms
Current State: High levels of pollution, boundary not precisely quantified

Scientific Definition

Novel entities refer to new substances, materials, and organisms introduced by humans that have the potential to cause unwanted geophysical and/or biological effects. This includes plastics, chemicals, GMOs, and nanomaterials.

Key Topics

  • Plastic pollution and microplastics
  • Chemical pollution (PFAS, pesticides, heavy metals)
  • Persistent organic pollutants (POPs)
  • Pharmaceutical pollution
  • Nanomaterials and emerging contaminants
  • Circular economy and waste management
  • GRI 306: Waste
  • GRI 301: Materials
  • SASB: Waste management (sector-specific)
  • Ellen MacArthur Foundation: Circular economy framework

Resources

Simon Mak’s Books

  • Plastic Accounting in Practice: Comprehensive plastic footprint methodology

Explore Novel Entities Resources →

Framework Integration with ESG Standards

Mapping to Major Standards

Planetary Boundary IFRS S2 TNFD GRI SASB
Climate Change ✅ Core ✅ Climate ✅ 305 ✅ All sectors
Biodiversity ⚠️ Indirect ✅ Core ✅ 304 ⚠️ Select sectors
Land-System Change ⚠️ Indirect ✅ Core ✅ 304 ⚠️ Select sectors
Freshwater Use ⚠️ Indirect ✅ Core ✅ 303 ✅ Water-intensive sectors
Biogeochemical Flows ❌ Not covered ✅ Pollution ✅ 306 ⚠️ Agriculture
Ocean Acidification ⚠️ Indirect ✅ Marine ✅ 304 ⚠️ Marine sectors
Aerosol Loading ❌ Not covered ❌ Not covered ✅ 305 ⚠️ Select sectors
Ozone Depletion ❌ Not covered ❌ Not covered ✅ 305 ❌ Not covered
Novel Entities ❌ Not covered ✅ Pollution ✅ 301, 306 ⚠️ Select sectors
Legend: ✅ Comprehensive coverage ⚠️ Partial coverage ❌ Not covered

Why Planetary Boundaries?

Scientific Rigor

The planetary boundaries framework is grounded in Earth system science and represents the consensus of leading climate and environmental scientists.

Comprehensive Coverage

The nine boundaries capture the full range of environmental pressures on Earth systems, from climate to biodiversity to chemical pollution.

Clear Thresholds

Each boundary defines a quantitative threshold beyond which risks increase significantly. This provides clear targets for corporate action.

Integration with ESG

The framework aligns with and complements major ESG standards (TNFD, IFRS S2, GRI), providing a scientific foundation for environmental reporting.

Academic References

Key Papers

  1. Rockström, J., et al. (2009). “A safe operating space for humanity.” Nature, 461, 472-475.

  2. Steffen, W., et al. (2015). “Planetary boundaries: Guiding human development on a changing planet.” Science, 347(6223), 1259855.

  3. Richardson, K., et al. (2023). “Earth beyond six of nine planetary boundaries.” Science Advances, 9(37), eadh2458.

  4. Persson, L., et al. (2022). “Outside the safe operating space of the planetary boundary for novel entities.” Environmental Science & Technology, 56(3), 1510-1521.

Research Institutions

  • Stockholm Resilience Centre: Home of the planetary boundaries framework
  • Potsdam Institute for Climate Impact Research: Climate and Earth system research
  • IPCC: Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
  • IPBES: Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services

Disclaimer: The planetary boundaries framework represents current scientific understanding and is subject to ongoing research and refinement. Boundary values and status assessments are based on the latest published research (2023).

Sources: Stockholm Resilience Centre, peer-reviewed scientific literature, IPCC, IPBES. </small>